War on Terror Bachelor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

War on Terror Bachelor - Essay Example The war on Iraq is a good example of this. Iraq had long fallen out with the US. Accordingly, the war on terror has been said to be responsible for the influence into the formulation of certain policies. For instance, how suspects are to be treated and even how personal privacy can be breached all in the name of security. As far as foreign policy is concerned, the United States seems to have used the war on terror to pursue some very aggressive policies. For this it has earned open criticism and condemnation from many different quarters. These policies are on the political, economic and military fronts. (2007) The war on Iraq is a true demonstration of this. It is openly clear that the war on terror was used in more ways than one to make sense of the war against Iraq. The people were openly against a war in Iraq but the President Bush and his administration went ahead with it anyway making use of forged documents and giving misleading information to gain the approval and support of t he American people. Careful analysis of the war on terror reveals instances of double speak where language was used to hide the true intentions of the government. The fact is that there were no links to terrorism that were openly visible and real in Iraq. Somehow even President Bush appeared to think so. This is probably why he resorted to using the forged documents. (Braun, 2008) So, there had to be some other reason that the Bush administration was keen on the war in Iraq. Conversely, while Afghanistan was the first to be targeted in the war on terror, being bombed by the United States in the search for Bin Laden and his Al Qaeda terrorist group, after some time the war shifted focus and Iraq became the target. So why the shift Iraq has a long history with the United States. When Iraq had attacked Iran, the US had been openly supportive. In addition to supplying Iraq with over 5 billion dollars worth of finances, it also supplied intelligence information and heavy apparatus in the form of trucks and even other machinery. The reason the US was openly involved and supported was so that it could make sure that Saddam Hussein won the war and Teheran, especially the Islamic radicals therein, was humiliated. It was in the 1980's when President George Bush, the senior, adopted the policy of accommodation as far as Iraq was concerned. In the policy the US would be able to gain access to the oil in the Persian Gulf as well as the security of certain friendly states in the region. However, the rapport was to fall after the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. (Tirman, 2001) Thus, there are various reasons why the United States focused its attention on Iraq as opposed to Afghanistan as far as the war on terror was concerned. First of all, Iraq was no longer in the good books of the US, not since the time it invaded Kuwait. Before then, the US was able to look the other way even in instances when it was clear that Iraq was committing serious offences and crimes right under its nose. However, the most convincing reason would have to be that Iraq has massive oil reserves which the US wanted to take for itself and exercise control over. In the global arena and especially in politics, countries act by way of leverage and oil is an important tool. Think of all the power and influence that

Great Depression of Two Countries in the Region Essay Example for Free

Great Depression of Two Countries in the Region Essay Compare and contrast the response to the Great Depression of two countries in the region. The outbreak of the Great Depression in 1929 caused economic hardship for society in the Americas. World trade was quelled and the consequences devastated the United States of America and Canada. Both countries suffered a breakdown in world trade and resulted in a decrease of domestic revenue. The governments were tasked with restoring an economy that faced a 40% and 37% drop in their GDP in Canada and the U. S respectively. Additionally the increased rates of unemployment heightened the difficult situation. In 1933-34 during the hardest parts of the depression, Canada faced 28% unemployment and the US 25% forcing the government to act on various policies and inevitably spending on recovery. The long term laissez faire approach from the government had to be reconsidered and simply instilling austerity measures were not going to be effective in balancing the federal budget. The attitudes of ‘business of America is business’ was also evident in the initial Canadian response. Similar to Herbert Hoover of the U.S, Prime Minister Mackenzie King believed that the crisis was a passing phase and refused to provide federal aid. This was partly attributed to the fact that Canada was already in debt due to expansion of infrastructure and education during the 1920s and only introduced moderate relief efforts. Hoover’s highly economically republican outlook was not popular and by 1932 Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected President. Correspondingly in Canada a new Prime Minister; Richard B. Bennett was tasked with alleviating the situation. Roosevelt initiated a New Deal, which would provide America with relief, recovery and reform from the economic depression. In response to the Great Depression Congress accelerated its tariff policies, culminating in the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934 which enabled the President to negotiate tariff reductions on a bilateral basis. In an angered response to the Smoot–Hawley tariff of republican government in 193 0, the Mackenzie government welcomed the British introduction of trade protectionism and a system of Commonwealth preference during 1931-32. In addition Canadian congress retaliated by raising its own rates on American imports. However this was not sustainable in the long run as the Canadian export economy had a dependence on a few primary products as it shrank by 50%. The worst hit industries such as farming, mining and logging saw prices collapses with little opportunity to find another job. In 1935 the Bennett Government eventually initiated a Canadian New Deal. Mirroring the ideas of Roosevelt, Industrial Standards Act was designed to bring Canadian workers and employers together under the auspices of the state to establish minimum wages and work standards. In America between1933-4 the National Recovery Administration also encouraged competitive wages to encourage spending and purchasing power for society. Roosevelt was also successful in his Job creation policies. In 1933 ‘Alphabet agencies’ were designed to put people back into work and in turn reducing unemployment. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC ) made it possible for 3 million young men to develop national and state park systems. Contrary to the highly capitalist system in America the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was set up to give relief to the unemployed with a budget of 500 million dollars. In contrast the Canadian government were comparatively more unsuccessful in creating more jobs. The bailout of the Canadian National railway took the debt to a further debt of $2 billion and while losing popularity Bennett could only settle for minimum wage, unemployment insurance programs. These efforts were largely unsuccessful; the provinces challenged the rights of the federal government to manage these programs. A return of the Mackenzie King government in 1935 meant a turning point in Canadian–American economic relations. The government passed the 1935 Reciprocal Trade Agreement undoing the devastating trade war of 1930–31. The second new deal from the Roosevelt government added changes to labour policy. The Works Progress Administration became the most significant relief agency in the New Seal. It received $4.8 billion and was particularly noteworthy in helping women, artists, young people and the African American population. During Roosevelt’s tenure unemployment rate returned to 9% and continue to fall until the Second World War. Along with the fiscal strategies used by the American government there was also a prominent use of monetary policy to help the recovery. In the Gold reserve Act of 1914, the dollar was pegged to the price of Gold at $35 an ounce, making exports considerably cheaper and imports cheaper. In another attempt Federal silver supply was increased to 30% of Gold’s stock to raise prices Silver Purchase Act of 1914. Moreover Bennetts government created legislation to establish the Bank of Canada to regulate monetary policy; in 1935 the Canadian wheat board was created to market and establish a minimum floor price for wheat. In actuality the monetary strategies had little impact as they were not radical enough. On the other hand Premier of Alberta William Aberhart felt like farmers were being exploited by high society in Toronto and Montreal. His radical and evangelist stance led to Social Credit movement 1932 to handing out a dividend of $25 a month to every man and woman. This ultimately failed but Aberhart did pass a Debt Adjustment Act in 1936 that cancelled all the interest on mortgages since 1932 and limited all interest rates on mortgages to 5%. This was an indication of some of the far-reaching changes that were needed to drive growth. The Canadian recovery can also be credited to the foundation CRBC- Canadian radio broadcasting council 1932. The depression was not just an economic term but also a feeling; in order to raise spirit and keep morale high the radio was used as an escape for the Canadian people. Conversely the productivity in the U.S recovered much quicker while the labour force sustained a melancholy feeling. Canada’s Crown in council also helped to create another national corporation; Bank of Canada. It was used to regulate currency and credit which had been badly managed amongst citizens. Another goal of the BOC was to serve as a private banker’s bank and to help the government on its own debts and financial matters as it eventually steered Canada to prosperity after the Second World War. This coincided with the recovery in American economy which created a better market for exports and a new inflow of much need capital.

Strategic Alliances In Integrated Supply Chain Management

Strategic Alliances In Integrated Supply Chain Management The objective of the study is to offer a theoretical framework to explain the positive impact of interdependence between strategic alliance partners with regard to the integration of work activities, information and alliance outcomes from the perspective of supply chain management. Methodology This approach adapted is a secondary approach where in the evolution of strategic alliances is comprehensively studied thus establishing the needs of organization across various time periods. Literatures of strategic alliances are approached from a strategic and supply chain perspective. Findings In the dynamic and ever changing business environments, strategic alliance has become an indispensable tool for the effective and efficient performance of a supply chain. With rapidly changing product life cycles and decreased durability of technologies, strategic alliances no longer became a strategic option; it became a necessity for an organization to survive the competition. Research limitation The information in this article is based on a sample literature available in this area. So the scope of information discussed in this article is limited to this literature sample. Practical implications The review of this literature highlight the importance of strategic alliances in supply chain management from the strategic perspective and explain the importance of information technology for effective integration of supply chain. Introduction For the purpose of this study, a strategic alliance is a trading partnership which links certain business processes of two or more companies which may augment effectively the competitive strategies of the firms involved while providing mutual benefits by exchanging technologies, skills, resources, or products. A strategic alliance can vary in form, function and framework. Increasing market competition, reduced product life cycle, high capital investment, increasing demand for innovation and new technologies are bringing additional pressure on companies to come up with new strategies for sustainable competitive environment (Denise Cristina Nishimura, 2010). In addition to these, all the exogenous factors like political, economic, social, technological and ethical factors related to automotive industry were the antecedents for automakers to engage in alliances. With the fundamental shift in power to the customer and customer dictating the terms of the market, issues of interdependence among members of supply chain became more critical. Winning customer loyalty becomes more difficult in this volatile environment and it becomes difficult for firms to compete in this competitive environment with inefficient and ineffective supply chains. So organizations rather than maintaining traditional arms-length relationships and having silo type structures, should strategically segment their supply chain partners and form durable arms-length relationships to allocate different levels of resources to each group (Damien Power, 2004). With ongoing globalization and increased competitiveness in the market place, it becomes difficult for the organization to have foot hold across many countries which require huge investment, technological agility to serve local customers and to overcome various environmental constraints like governmental regulations etc. So companies by forming alliances can share the financial, technological resources and can effectively serve multi-domestic markets. Strategic alliances are an instrument for combining co-operation and competition in corporate strategies. Patterns of co-operation and competition can be categorized into three groups (Nam-Hoon Kang, 2000): Co-operate while competing: Companies may continue to compete while they co-operate in some business areas in order to learn from each other to strengthen weak areas. Co-operate among them and compete with others: Companies may form alliance to compete with strong third parties. Co-operate, then compete: Companies co-operate among themselves to gain competencies and compete once they achieve a common standard. Major Alliances in Automobile Sector Source: Adopted from Kang, N. and K. Sakai (2000), International Strategic Alliances: Their Role in Industrial Globalization. Evolution of Strategic Alliances In the evolution of automotive industry it started with artisan production, passed through Henry Fords mass production to the present state State of the art technologies. Throughout the evolutionary past automakers formed alliances in the form of mergers, acquisitions and joint ventures. Strategic alliances have been formed between firms on a national or international basis. The current form of alliances is distinguished from the past forms. In the new alliances firms remain independent from each other. During the arrangement there are common goals, but each firm has its own strategic goals. The partner firms are frequently collaborating reciprocally in their core areas of their competences rather than in peripheral businesses (Denise Cristina Nishimura, 2010). As on 2004, 80% of the passenger cars have been manufactured by the ten firms of the five industrialized countries. The strategic alliances in the passenger car industry happened mostly among countries like USA, European Union, Japan and Korea. General Motors and Toyota, Ford and Mazda, Chrysler and Mitsubishi have formed strategic alliances (Ayegul Samsunlu, 2006). Out of these only small number of companies leverage on supplier relationships, involving suppliers in their key business processes. Traditionally companies followed multi-supplier model, avoidance of long term contracts to enforce high bargaining power and keep the margins low. In this model organizations view themselves as individuals which are creating value to the customer by producing the deliverables. This is later dominated by a co-operative model where in companies share vital information to the suppliers, recognize areas of common interest, areas of distinctive competence among suppliers to leverage on their resources and integrate suppliers to their business process for effective and efficient performance of supply chain activities. In this organizations view themselves as a part of supply chain which creates value to the customer. This integration process among various partners of the supply chain is further facilitated by development in technological solutions that integrates information that surpasses organizational boundaries. This concept of supply chain further evolved into supply networks where in many firms in the supply chain are a part of different supply chains (Damien Power, 2004). Reasons for Strategic Alliances One of the reasons the automobile industry allies with foreign firms is to survive global competition under a weak relationship between the government and the industry (Hyun Young LEE, 2005). The reasons for forming strategic alliances changed over a period of time. Reasons for Alliances (Source: Adopted from Margarita Isoraite Importance of Strategic Alliances) Strategic alliances are supposed to create value for partner firms and their customers. This value is generated through synergy among the partnered firms. A large number of factors are responsible for creating the value like access to common resources, fit between partners needs, cost sharing, market penetration, scale economies etc (Bing-Sheng Teng, 2003). An alliance can create value in three possible ways. They are (Bing-Sheng Teng, 2003) Increases unit sales Lowering average costs per unit Increasing the customer willingness to pay An alliance along with leveraging on the competencies should also overcome the issues associated with partnering. In August of 1966, Nissan took over Prince. Besides the Nissan-Prince merger, six separate auto producer tie-up arrangements were negotiated in the late 1960s; Toyota-Hino (1966), Toyota-Daihatsu (1967), Fuji-Isuzu (1967), Mitsubishi-Fuji-Isuzu (1967), Mitsubishi-Isuzu (1968), and Nissan-Isuzu (1966). Toyota-Hino and Toyota-Daihatsu mergers materialized. It is notable that the product lines of three companies were complementary; Toyotas passenger cars, Hinos trucks and Daihatsus mini cars. All three firms were profitable in their primary line of products. This alliance created value because the activities in which these firms are competent are complementary, so the companies leveraged on these to generate added value. On the other hand, the four negotiations involving Mitsubishi, Isuzu, and Fuji failed because they could not overcome the various obstacles; product line ov erlapping, management independence, and antagonism between firms (Hyun Young LEE, 2005). The aims of strategic alliances are product differentiation, reduction in development costs, optimization of manufacturing capacity, reduction in time to market, improving productivity, speeding up the product development cycle, spreading the high cost of RD and leveraging know-how where ever. For example, GM has created strategic alliances. It has created strategic alliances with Suzuki for small cars. It has created strategic alliance with Toyota for technology, Honda engines for Hummer, Fiat for regional dominance and Isuzu for diesel engines and trucks (Ayegul Samsunlu, 2006). Some prime reasons for strategic alliances are (John D. Daniels, 2009) To spread and reduce Costs At a small volume of business, it may be caper for companies to contract the work to a specialist rather than handle it internally. A specialist can spread the fixed cost across many companies. Similarly a company having excess production and sales capacity that it can use to produce or sell for another company. Using this capacity for production or selling, the contracting company reduces its costs by not investing in fixed assets. Ford (US) had an alliance with a Japanese carmaker, Mazda. Ford focuses on cost reduction through communalization of car platforms, power trains (Nam-Hoon Kang, 2000). Synergy and competitive advantage Achieving synergy and a competitive advantage may be another reason why firms enter into a strategic alliance. Competition becomes more effective when partners leverage off each others strengths, bringing synergy into the process that would be hard to achieve if attempting to enter a new market or industry alone (Margarita Isoraite, 2009). To specialize in competencies The resource based view of the firm holds that each company has a unique combination of competencies. Companies seek to improve its performance by concentrating on those activities that best fits its competencies, depending on the alliance partners for supply of products, services or support activities for which it has lesser competency. To avoid or counter competition Sometimes markets are not large enough to hold many competitors. So, companies have to band together so as not to compete. To Gain Knowledge Many companies that are open to new ideas and have the capacity to implement innovations, pursues collaborative arrangements to learn partners technology, operational practices, or home markets so that their own competencies will broaden and deepen, making them more competitive in future. To gain location specific Assets Cultural, Economic, Political and competitive differences among countries may create barrier for organizations to operate abroad. Then companies may seek local organizations to collaborate for managing local operations. General Motors and Ford are forming alliances with Japanese firms to build on their capacity and presence in the region. General Motors is jointly developing mini-vehicles for Asian markets with Suzuki and will assemble these vehicles in Suzukis factory in Japan or other Asian countries (Nam-Hoon Kang, 2000). To overcome Governmental Constraints All the countries limit foreign ownership in some sectors. So companies have to partner with local organizations to serve these markets where 100% FDI is not permissible. Fastest means of entering markets Collaborative arrangements offer a faster initial means of entering multiple markets. Moreover, if product conditions favor diversification, it is more compelling to establish a foreign collaborative arrangement. To minimize exposure in risky environments Companies worry that political and economic changes will affect the safety of assets and their earning in their foreign operations. One way to minimize losses is to minimize the asset base in foreign countries by collaborations. Types of Strategic Alliances These alliances range from relatively noncommittal types of short-term, project-based cooperation to more inclusive long-term equity-based cooperation namely mergers and acquisition, joint ownership, joint venture, formal cooperative, informal cooperative. Horizontal Alliances In the automobile industry, horizontal alliances occur when an automaker links with another automaker with reciprocal collaborations in joint activities. Partners can setup joint production/infrastructure to achieve economies of scale, or joint sales in order to gain more market share, or basically to transfer technological knowledge. Licensing (John D. Daniels, 2009) In Licensing, a company (the licensor) grants rights to intangible property to another company (the licensee) to use in a specified geographic area for a specified period. In exchange, the licensee pays a royalty fee to the licensor. Used for Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks and other intangible properties. The economic motive behind licensing is for faster start-up, lower costs or access to valuable resources. The advantages of licensing are Licensor can cover many markets in faster speed at low cost Licensor gets tie-ups with local distributors. Understands local market Disadvantages of licensing can be diffusion of technology and losing the market to licensee. The licensee can become a potential competitor. In the alliance between GM and Russian Avtovaz, GMs licensed its technology to Avtovaz, to produce sport utility vehicles in Russia (John D. Daniels, 2009). Joint Ventures A joint venture is defined as a co-operative business activity, formed by two or more separate firms for strategic purposes, which creates a legally independent business entity and allocates ownership, operational responsibilities, and financial risks and rewards to each partner, while preserving each partners separate identity or autonomy (Nam-Hoon Kang, 2000). The independent business entity can either be newly formed or the combination of pre-existing units and/or divisions of the partners. Joint ventures generally aim at making the new company a self-standing entity with its own aims, employees and resources (Nam-Hoon Kang, 2000). Some reasons for joint ventures are Exploiting Capabilities and Expertise (Nishith Desai, 2011) Companies having complementary skills and capabilities engage in mutual co-operations, so that they can contribute to the co-operation. Each of the members concentrates on their competencies and depends on their partner for complementary skills so that the total value generated by the partners will be more than the value generated individually. Leveraging Resources (Nishith Desai, 2011) With the globalization, it became difficult for one company to pool all the resource like financing, skilled manpower to serve various markets. Access to labor, capital and technological resources have become driving forces for modern businesses to withstand the competitive dynamics in the changing environment. Managing the business across the borders became more complex compelling the companies to form alliance by entering into a Joint Venture. Advantages of Joint venture includes entering a foreign country against FDI regulations , sharing risks as well as costs, established channel partners and relations of the partner etc (John D. Daniels, 2009). Disadvantages include conflict of vision/interest, both parties not contributing equally, lack of complete control, Market sharing leading to market contraction etc (John D. Daniels, 2009). Examples: Hero Honda started in 1984 as a joint venture between Hero Cycles of India and Honda of Japan. After that it became the largest two wheeler manufacturer in India. In August 2011 the company was renamed Hero MotoCorp with a new corporate identity after the joint venture dissolved. Acquisition (Eszter Molnar, 2009) The fastest way of entering new markets is by acquisition where the larger firm purchases more that 50% of stake in the smaller firm. It enables the buyer to benefit from existing structures, brand, relations, channels and business knowledge in case of a foreign takeover. Advantages (John D. Daniels, 2009). Saves time and quick to market due to well established distribution and sales channels Competition in the market remains unchanged Disadvantages (John D. Daniels, 2009). Obsolete technology Resources might not be in best class Processes and practices might not be world class Example: Porsches gambit, where in it steadily increased its stake in Volkswagen since 2005 and became the majority stake holder in Volkswagen by October 2008 (Eszter Molnar, 2009). Tata motors after the acquisition of British Jaguar Land Rover (JLR) business became a major player in the international automobile market. The main reason for the acquisition would be acquiring intellectual property rights related to the technologies. Merger Merger is an horizontal equity alliance, where two companies often of about the same size, decide to go forward as a single company that remain separately owned and operated. An ominous merger was the DaimlerChrysler when the German based Daimler-Benz merged with US based Chrysler Corporation in 1998. It is known as Merger of Equals, but it didnt last long and they separated in 2007. Later Chrysler made a strategic alliance with Fiat under the terms that Fiat will take 35% of stake in Chrysler in exchange for supplying high fuel-efficient power train technology and small and medium sized vehicle platforms. This alliance helped Chrysler to penetrate European and South American markets and Fiat to get access to US market (Eszter Molnar, April 2009). Vertical Alliances Vertical alliances occur when the automaker builds relationship with suppliers who provide goods and services in any business process along with the vertical chain. Basically vertical relations were mostly based on the decision making process of make-versus-buy. Making decision means that the automaker produces in-house. One of the main reasons behind it is to protect its core competitive advantages. Buying decision means that the automaker purchases or outsources the production of goods or services. The shift in the strategic outlook from organizational view to supply chain view is compelling organizations to produce the core products in-house and contract the production and control of peripheral parts from strategic supply chain partners. Nowadays, in the automobile industry 30% of the parts of a car are produced by automakers, while the other 70% of the parts, which would be assembled in the final product, are produced by suppliers (Denise Cristina Nishimura, 20 10). Contract Manufacturing (John D. Daniels, 2009) In contract manufacturing, the parent company approaches a firm known as contract manufacturer with a design/formula. Once the contract is finalized then the contract manufacturer manufactures the components/products for the hiring company. The company becomes free from managing the labor but technological diffusion will occur but only for manufacturing process. Examples like manufacturing contracts between a major carmaker and a local Chinese firm, Toyota/Tianjian Automotive Industrial and Renault/Dandong Automotive Works. Turnkey Operations (John D. Daniels, 2009) Turnkey operations are a type of collaborative arrangements in which one company contracts with another to build complete, ray to operate facilities. Companies building turnkey operations are frequently industrial-equipment manufacturers and construction companies. Customers for turnkey operations are frequently governmental agencies. Strategic Outsourcing Strategic outsourcing is the alternative way for the company to accomplish its value chain activities rather than performing the entire value chain activities. In the current market place there are quiet a good number of companies that are specialized in some activities. Outsourcing these activities to the specialized companies strengthen the companies business model either by improving the efficiency by decreasing the cost or by enhancing the effectiveness by creating differentiating advantage in terms of quality, variety, speed of the supply chain. Subcontracting is necessary because it facilitates firm to concentrate on its core competencies; it allows for an economic method of production; suppliers are encouraged to specialize, which allows economies of scale in technology; to encourage smooth production by utilizing sources of supply. Economic Dualism theory suggests that large companies create dual economy by subcontracting, in which they can expand their resources in times of fortune and reduce capacity in times of recession, thus using sub-contracting as a cushion against economic cycles. However this theory fails in present conditions where subcontractors are seen as partners sharing risks, rewards and revenues (Paul D Cousins, 2003). This outsourcing can be entire function like Nike outsourced its manufacturing function or it can be a part of the function like many companies outsource the management of their payroll/pension systems while keeping the HRM activities within the system. A survey estimates that some 56% of g lobal product manufacturing is exported to manufacturing specialists (Hill Jones, 2008). What to Outsource With customer being the key focus in these present dynamic environments, companies keeps on trying to increase the total value generated to the customers by increasing the gap between customer willingness to pay and costs associated with the product. To achieve this companies outsource activities that they think the specialized company will generate more value by performing that activity. In the environment of growing customer demand for supply chain efficiency and effectiveness it is recommended for the company to perform the supply chain activities that it has distinctive competence and outsource the rest of activities. In many cases out-sourcing helps companies to obtain better operational expertise that would be difficult for the company to develop in-house. Outsourcing is growing at a rate of 23% per year because companies are discovering that they do not need to do everything themselves. Yet, not all processes are outsourced. Outsourcing the wrong process could be counterproduc tive, expensive, or even fatal to a company (Andrea and Dana Meyer, 2002). Core vs. Non-Core (Andrea and Dana Meyer, 2002) The most crucial aspect of outsourcing is in making the distinction between the core competencies, which should be kept in-house, and the non-core activities, which are candidates for outsourcing. One element of the core vs. non-core distinction is the issue of controlling ones destiny. Becoming excessively dependent on partners reduces the strategic options available to a company. Processes that nurture the core, protect the core, or help the company exploit its core competencies are also held internally. Companies need to think carefully about what they wish to sow, nurture, and reap in-house in order to harvest long-term profits. Five-Stage Model (Andrea and Dana Meyer, 2002) Prof. Fine enumerated five variables that predict the wisdom of in-sourcing vs. outsourcing. Modularity of components/processes: Modular elements are potential candidates for outsourcing than integral elements of a product or business Quantity of providers: The fewer the number of providers, the less outsourcing makes sense Clock speed: The faster the clock speed, the more you want to in-source. Importance to customer: If the customer cares about it, dont outsource it. Benchmark performance level: if you have best-in-class performance on the process, dont outsource it. Value Equation (Andrea and Dana Meyer, 2002) A value equation used by Unilever to evaluate the added value generated by outsourcing activities to supply chain partners is Net Value = Internal Value from Focus + External Value from Provider Transaction Costs This equation helps only quantitatively where as many qualitative parameters like whether the activity is core or non-core should also be considered. For activities that are non-core, the equation helps the company assess the value of outsourcing that non-core activity. Although the equation looks like a simple financial model, many of the terms have qualitative elements (Andrea and Dana Meyer, 2002). Value Equation: Internal Value from Focus (Andrea and Dana Meyer, 2002) With outsourcing, management and employees can focus more on what is important. So organizations create more value by focusing their valuable resources on their core activities and thus increase the value to the customer. Value Equation: External Value from Provider (Andrea and Dana Meyer, 2002) Providers can create value by being more efficient, more effective, or more innovative than the internal counterpart. This value is the key part of the value proposition. The source of the providers value can fall into one of two categories: Value from high economies of scale Value from high levels of expertise. Specialist provider achieves scale economies by aggregating volumes of activities from multiple companies through standardization and decreases the unit costs across the supply network. Value from high levels of expertise occurs when the provider can accumulate large quantities of knowledge that would be hard for each client company to replicate. Value Equation: Transaction Costs (Andrea and Dana Meyer, 2002) Transaction costs are inevitable in the outsourcing. Costs of internal transactions which are in general informal are very low and hidden where as the transaction costs with the outsourced company are visible and substantial. Extra transaction costs arise from having to formally specify what the partner is to do, managing that external activity. Companies decompose transaction costs into 3 categories: Oversight costs: Cost of managing the relationship, performance, information exchange etc. Switching costs: Cost of changing from insourcing to outsourcing Risk: The potential costs of problems associated with the outsourcing arrangement Evolution of Outsourcing Subcontracting model has changes drastically over last two decades. One of the most common strategies was Multiple Sourcing, which arises from the principle Not to keep all your eggs in one basket which was adequate when competition is local or national. With companies becoming global, competition has intensified, time to market cycles has to be kept low, increased innovations as customers demanding high quality products, at competitive prices became difficult with multiple sourcing strategy. This shifted the focus of companies towards Parallel Sourcing strategy where companies use single source within model groups and multiple sources for different products. This provides buyer benefits of sole sourcing like closer working relationships, information sharing etc and benefits of multiple sourcing like security of supply and market pricing (Paul D Cousins, 2003). This approach is followed by what is called Network approach which is complemented by concepts of Supplier tiers. In this approach suppliers are organized into Tier I (Major assemblers) followed by Tier II (Sub-assemblers). This kind of supply structure has become popular with in automotive and aerospace industry where in it allowed buyers to work with fewer, sophisticated suppliers. As a result buyers rely on fewer, powerful suppliers for supply of sub-assemblies (Paul D Cousins, 2003). With these high levels of dependencies, scholars are considering near paradigms like agile, lean and mass customization techniques. These paradigms are creating high degrees of integration across supply chain that will require more sophisticated relationship management across supply chain partners. If managed properly firms can reduce costs, decreases time to market and increases responsiveness to customers at lower costs (Paul D Cousins, 2003). Benefits of Out-Sourcing Cost reduction and cost savings Out-sourcing reduces the costs if the price you are paying for the company is less than the costs that you incur if the same activities are performed in-house. Specialist companies are able to perform activities at a lower cost as they can realize economies of scale by performing the same kind of activity for various companies. These specialized companies invest more in efficient-scale manufacturing facilities/processes to spread the costs against large volumes and bring down unit costs. Specialists also save costs through learning effects more rapidly than the clients. These companies learn fast how to operate the processes more efficiently compared to its clients. Since most of the out-sourced companies are based at low-cost global locations, costs can easily drive down (Hill Jones, 2008). Enhanced Differentiation Companies should be able to differentiate its final products by out-sourcing certain noncore activities. These companies can provide more reliable products by strongly focusing and achieving competence in that activity thus decreasing the defect rate. Most of these specialized companies have adopted Six Sigma methodologies and bring down error rates, thereby increasing the reliability of product. For example carmakers outsource specific kinds of vehicle component design activities such as microchips and headlights to the specialists who have earned reputation for design excellence (Hill Jones, 2008). Focus on core business Strategic out-sourcing makes the managers to focus their energies and companies resources in performing the core activities that can create sustainable have more potential to create value and competitive advantage. By this companies enhance their competence and push out the value creation frontier and create more value for their customers (Hill Jones, 2008). Flexibility Companies gain access to new technologies and use suppliers technology to accelerate new product development. Companies can also adapt to changing business environments by changing suppliers if the existing suppliers using technologies that are obsolete. Thus companies mitigate the risk of investing in resources/technologies that have short life cycles (Yijie Dou and Joseph Sarkis, 2010). Local Expertise Partners also bring local expertise to the relationship. Although global companies would like to create economies of scale based on world-wide uniformity, such uniformity is not always possible. Local government regulations impact ingredients or packaging. Local customs and trends affect marketing or product mix. Supplier partners (l

Effects of Corn Monoculture on Soils: Models for Change in American Agr

Effects of Corn Monoculture on Soils: Models for Change in American Agriculture According to writer and environmentalist Vandana Shiva, "the crucial characteristic of monocultures is that they do not merely displace alternatives, they destroy their own basis"(1993, p.50). If the self-destruction of a monoculture is really so simple, it seems that continuous cropping agriculture should long have been abandoned for a more suitable method. Unfortunately, the problem is far more complex. This paper will focus on the effects of corn monoculture on soils in general, the development of the monoculture in the United States and the effects this had on soil in this country. Through the exploration of other models, suggestions will then be made on how to modify the continuous cropping system in the United States into a more sustainable one. The first piece of evidence that the continual cropping system is inefficient, is that it is the least productive growing system. In experiments done in Wooster, Ohio, it was found that a field where crop rotation was used could produce 27.62 bushels of corn per acre, a field with continual cropping produced only 13.33 bushels per acre, and where chemical fertilizer was used on a continuous cropped field, 30.53 bushels per acre were produced (Weir, 1936,p. 502). Though it interesting that these facts are fundamental enough to have been discovered before 1936, it should also be noted that a recent eight year study done at the University of Nebraska, where scientists compared thirteen cropping systems, "the results confirmed the findings of studies done in the first half of the century"(Committee on the Role of Alt. Farm. Methods, 1989, p.229). If continual cropping is the least effective method o... ...ouncil, 1989, Alternative Agriculture: Washington, D.C., National Academy Press. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1980, China: Multiple Cropping and Related Crop Production Technology, report on the fao/undp study tour or the People's Republic of China, 25 June- 22 July 1979: Rome, United Nations Publishing. Hudson, John C., 1994, Making the Corn Belt: A Geographical History of Middle-western Agriculture: Bloomington, Indiana University Press. Miracle, Marvin P., 1966, Maize in Tropical Africa: Madison, University of Wisconsin Press. Shiva, Vandana, 1993, Monocultures of the Mind: Perspectives on Biodiversity and Biotechnology: London, Zed Books Limited. Weir, Wilbert W., 1936, Soil Science : Its Principles and Practice Including Basic Processes for Managing Soils and Improving their Fertility: Chicago, J.B. Lippencott Company.

Evaluate what psychologists have discovered about substance use and abuse Essay

In discovering about substance use and abuse one issue encountered are the inevitable ethical issues that occur. In Mestel and Concar’s study for example, sensitive data was collected. Sharing this sensitive data wit hthe researchers may have caused participants unnecessary anxiety or embarrassment if for example the urine test showed that they had used cocaine. This inevitably leads to ethical issues due to the unpleasant emotions participants may have been subjected to. Similarly in Robinson et al’s study, participants may have experienced unpleasant emotions such as embarrassment and ill ease as a result of the personal nature of the questions asked. From the two studies we can see that ethics is often a factor when exploring the issue of substance use and abuse however substance abuse is, by definition, against social expectations and consequently is always likely to incur ethical dilemmas when researchers attempt to discover substance use and abuse. Another difficulty incurred when attempting to explore substance use and abuse is social desirability. Social desirability is the term given to the situation in which people give answers that are contrary or different to their beliefs because their alternative answer is more socially acceptable. In Moolchan et al’s study for example personal data was collected and in order to present themselves in abetter light people may have lied when giving their answer – responding by saying that their parent didn’t smoke when in fact they did for example. Similarly in Lando’s study baseline data was collected by asking participants to keep a diary detailing their smoking for one week. Participants may have recorded false information because they felt this false information would be more socially acceptable. Social desirability can lead to results which are invalid and resultantly lead to a lack of validity as the study will not record peoples true response. Another difficulty in discovering substance use and abuse is the issue of generalisability. Generalisability is the term used to define the extent to which results from one sample of participants can be applied to wider groups. In Griffiths study for example the findings may not be able to generalised to a country such as Australia as the sample used was not representative. Similarly Murray’s study conducted in 1988 had a sample which was exclusively composed of adolescents and consequently it could not be applied to the wider population. In reality however a study is likely to never be truly representative to a global extent and in doing so such a diverse sample may make it hard for clear results to be distinguished due to cultural differences. Research into substance use and abuse may also incur the difficulty of ethnocentric bias. This is the tendency to perceive the world from you own cultural group, such as your wthnic group. The issue of ethnocentric bias can be seen in Gomels study. Gomel looked at a workplace in which smoking had been banned and how this related to the reduction in substance use (smoking). The study can be een to be ethnocentrically biased because it was conducted in one workplace in Australia. Ethnocentric bias can result in research that is not applicable to the larger population as the results from this study may not be found to be the same if it was conducted in Australia for example. c) Many people resolve to give up smoking each new year. With middle aged women specifically in mind suggest one psychological technique which would be useful to help them in their attempts to stop smoking. Give reasons for your answer. In attempting to stop smoking one technique which may be useful is the use of self help groups. Self help groups are support circles where each member is also attempting to quit smoking. As Moolchan discovered in his study, women who smoke are likely to be socially skilled and confident and so may find a group therapy useful where they can support and gain support from other women in the group who are in a socially similar position to themselves. Group therapy may also be effective in helping a middle aged woman quit smoking as she may make friends with people in the group and thus turn to them for support as she would turn to a friend outside of the group. The clear difference however would be that the person in the group would be going through the same experience as the middle aged woman and so would be able to identify with her. Those in the support group may also acknowledge an element of competition each one wanting to continue to stop smoking so they remain in the group. For this variety of reasons a support group is likely to be the most effective strategy in supporting a middle aged woman who is giving up smoking.

The Congress of Vienna (1814

The Congress of Vienna (1814 The Congress largely known as the European Concert was the initial sequence of the worldwide conference to be held for the diplomatic European power balance. The 1945 United Nations alongside the 1919 League of Nations are some of the mockup groups that later resulted from the Vienna Congress.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In fact, as emphasized by Schroeder Paul, the congress shunned the ancient methods of power application that seemed destructive and threatening. The congress embraced formulas which produced an equilibrium that was very compassionate and steady. The Vienna Congress came in the year 1814 (May) immediately after the downfall and admission of defeat by Bonaparte. The unremitting war had lasted for approximately 25 years by the time this conference was inaugurated (King 334). Ironically, the theatrical resumption of French control as well as the resurfacing from exile by Napoleon activated the outburst of that warfare. Nevertheless, the conferences carried on for a hundred days in the year 1815 (between March and July). A number of historians proclaim that the Congress at Vienna never resembled an appropriate Congress. It never met the threshold of a Congress owing to the lack of or restricted contribution by the existing representatives. Similarly, the Congress sittings included the great powers namely Prussia, Russia, France, Britain, and Austria while the meeting dialogues accrued informally and personal rather than on a plenary session. The Congress was the first one ever in history (Schroeder 683). With regard to the inter-capital dispatch riders, the nationwide and intercontinental delegates assembled in a forum to formulate concords. Hence, while in anticipation of World War 1 in the year 1914, the Vienna Congress designed a background for the European intercontinental political affairs notwithstanding t he advanced modifications. The Congress approved the 1814 Chaumont Treaty that contained various re-affirmed verdicts. The decisions contained in the treaty comprised of the expansion of Netherlands and it took account of what later developed into the contemporary Belgium in the year 1830. The treaty also included the decisions to restore Spanish monarchs (Bourbons), the splitting of Italy into sovereign states, and the institution of a united Germany. Indeed, the power balance that lasted for years resulted from the Chaumont Treaty which also designed the Alliances in European countries.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conversely, matters concerning Scandinavia and other additional operations had earlier been included in the Kiel and Paris treaties amid the 6th Coalition and France. Besides, before the preceding inauguration of the Congress in the year 1814, the Paris treaty had previously fixed that Vienna could host the general congress. Thus, the Paris treaty had in the same way organized for an invitation of all the betrothed powers in the warfare (Zawadzki 20). The Vienna Congress participants The Vienna Congress had four great powers that had earlier made up the Sixth Coalition members. The great powers had delineated their collective stand in regard to the Chaumont treaty just before the downfall of Bonaparte. In the year 1814 (March), which was the duration for re-establishment, the alliance had deliberated on the 1814 Paris treaty together with the Bourbons (King 334). The French Bourbon and other supremacies The key accomplices in the Vienna Congress incorporated the French speakers, Prussian, Russians, British, and Australians. France as one of the powerful nations was represented by Duke of Dahlberg and Talleyrand. The two French delegates were the Plenipotentiary and Foreign ministers respectively. The Foreign minister (Talleyrand) on behal f of Louis XVIII, who was the King of French territory, had previously discussed the year 1814 Paris treaty. Yet, King Louis XVIII of France held secret negotiations with Metternich given the suspicion he had on Talleyrand (Zamoyski 297). Prussian nation was also regarded among the great powers. Its presentation at the Vienna Congress was done by Wilhelm who was both a scholar and ambassador. Other delegates who presented Prussia included Chancellor and August Karl who was a Prince. Interestingly, the Prussian King (William Frederick III) was engaged in the recreation of some significant issues. The King carried on with this duty in public places though he was present in Vienna (Zawadzki 24). The European nation rulers pursued the same ground and timepiece to the year 1789 in order to re-establish the ancient administration. In Russia, King Alexander I was one of the influential and greatest sovereign rulers in Europe. Alexander I who was the Russian King during the Congress organiz ed a delegation in Russia following the footsteps of Robert Karl who had earlier headed such an entrustment as a foreign minister. The King had merely two outstanding goal lines in the delegation he led. Initially, Alexander I wished to encourage and endorse a nonviolent cohabitation among inhabitants living in the continent. The King wanted to embrace the powers to have control over Poland. However, in the year 1815 he thrived and started the Holy Alliance which was established based on love for Christianity. The Holy Alliance could fight whichever intimidation or jeopardy from antimonarchism and rebellion (Schroeder 687).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The other great power among the four was Great Britain. Castlereagh Viscount who was the Foreign Secretary became the principal envoy to represent Britain in the Congress held at Vienna. Subsequent ly, the departure of Viscount back to Britain in early 1815 paved way for Wellington to represent Britain at the conference. The Congress produced a limelight for the restoration of peace and stability in Europe. In the period of Hundred Days (March-July 1815), Wellington who was the leader of the Congress retreated to meet Bonaparte. Thus, Duke of Wellington endorsed Earl to lead the conference during the final days of the Congress (Zamoyski 297). On the other hand, Austria as a state got representation through the Foreign Minister besides his assistants Metternich Prince and Johann Baro. Back in Austria, Francis the Emperor was fed with the information on the subject and the whereabouts of the conferences taking place at the Vienna Congress. The other signatories to the Paris Treaty (1814) included Genoa Republic, the States of Papal, Switzerland, Denmark, Norway-Sweden, Algarve, Spain, and the Kingdom of Portugal. In general, almost all the European nations were presented in the Congress with a delegation and agents of special factions, sacred groups, firms, and metropolises (Zawadzki 28). The Role of Talleyrand and Polish-Saxon crisis The delegates from the influential powers never wanted an inclusion of Talleyrand into the intense intercession at the Congress. However, in the initial stages of negotiation Talleyrand managed to get into the innermost spheres of the Congress. Talleyrand used that opportunity to be part of the core and control negotiations after clinching into the minor authorities like Portugal and Spain working group. After deserting his associates upon leaving the Committee, Talleyrand was present at the preliminary conference on protocol by the major Allies. Equally, the Polish-Saxon crisis proved to be the hazardous and greatest matter that took center-stage during the Congress. While Russia coveted a good part of Poland, Prussia preferred all of Saxony whose ruler was associated to Bonaparte (Zamoyski 297). In this regard, Poland would have a King as their ruler. This forced Britain to back Austria with the hope that Russia would develop into a more powerful nation. Talleyrand anticipated that France would be divulged into the innermost circle in order to back Britain and Austria. The 1815 clandestine accord by Austria, Britain, and France campaigned against the execution of the Russo-Prussian idea by fighting against Prussia and Russia (King 334).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Ultimate Bylaw Prior to the Waterloo struggle, the Ultimate Bylaw that exemplified all other distinct pacts was signed by various mediators. They included the British, Norwegians, Swedish, Russians, Prussians, Portuguese, French speakers, and Australians. This Bylaw became sanctioned in the fiscal nineteen-seventeen by Spain who hardly appeared to be a stakeholder. The signing of the Final Act terminated the conference at Vienna with a renovated Europe having a plan for properly balanced power (Zamoyski 297). The results of Vienna Congress The Congress saw the espousal of rational policy with little penalties and plunders besides providing a stable European re-settlement. The Congress ensured no experience of any major conflict until the commencement of the Crimean and First World Wars. The conference provided for humanity in the whitewashed French nation with the aim of eradicating sentiments that would present vengeance. Besides, the Vienna Congress assumed a strategy to reviv e and restore peace, stability, and earlier conditions prior to the war in Europe (Schroeder 684). The European kingdoms’ restoration as well as the avoidance of superior nationalism and equality transpired from the Congress. However, ignoring the demands for greater nationalism and democracy later gave rise to conflicts that occurred in the 19th Century. Finally, nationalist campaigners yearning for democracy distressed the reinstated territories. The criticism of Vienna Congress The Vienna Congress often faced denunciation by historians of the 19th Century. In the contemporary days, historians however disregard the liberal and nationwide instincts for striking the close continental rejoinder. Nevertheless, historians in the Twentieth and Twenty First Century appreciate the statesmen who ascended to the Vienna Congress. These historians embrace the work of the Congress that prohibited further prevalence of conflicts for almost 100 years (1815 onwards) in Europe (King 334). B ibliography King, David. Vienna 1814: How the Conquerors of Napoleon Made Love, War, and Peace at the Congress of Vienna, New York, NY: Crown Publishing Group, 2008. Print. The book is a page-turner containing many life aspects including sex, intelligence, comedy and explorations. It is an important read for me as it is a well-researched political intrigue that illuminates how Napoleon and his clique changed the course of European continental history and modern politics. Schroeder, Paul. Did the Vienna Settlement Rest on a Balance of Power? American Historical Journal, 97.3 (1992): 683-706. Print. This article articulates how the players in Vienna Congress were sensitive to balancing the power that was distributed after the downfall of Napoleon. It is an essential article as it addresses Vienna settlement and the 19th century implication on international system. Zamoyski, Adam. Rites of Peace: The Fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna, New York City, NY: HarperCollins Publishe rs, 2007. Print. The book contains the European history of Napoleon defeat plus details of the Congress of Vienna that succeeded the downfall. The book reveals how politics was played in ensuring the curtailing of the French influence and the actors who sought piece of the action and how the same may recur in the contemporary world. Zawadzki, Herbert. Russia and the Re-Opening of the Polish Question, 1801-1814. International History Review, 7.1 (1985): 19-44. Print. This article addresses the politics that played in establishing a detached Polish kingdom in 1815 in collaboration with Russia. The essay reveals the acrimony and disruptive negotiations at the Congress of Vienna.